Сноски
1
Синапс – место контакта между двумя нейронами или между нейроном и получающей сигнал другой клеткой (мышечной, эпителиальной), где происходит передача нервного импульса. – Прим. ред.
2
Среднеквадратичное отклонение характеризует разброс значений какого-либо параметра вокруг его среднего значения. Если среднеквадратичное отклонение велико, значит, вариабельность высокая, то есть значения сильно расходятся со средним. При нормальном распределении практически все значения исследуемого параметра попадают в интервал плюс-минус три среднеквадратичных отклонения относительно среднего значения. – Здесь и далее, если не указано иное, прим. автора.
3
Так называемую модель триединого мозга предложил Пол Маклин. Согласно его гипотезе, мозг имеет структуру, обусловленную его эволюционным развитием, и состоит из трех слоев. Самый древний, рептильный, покрыт сверху вторым слоем – лимбической системой. А опоясывает эти два слоя третий, самый новый, – неокортекс. Идея Маклина по своей сути состоит в том, что по мере нашего развития новые слои мозга добавлялись к старым, как прицепляют дополнительный вагон к поезду. Я называю эту модель эволюции теорией поезда.
4
Исследователи определили, что головной мозг взрослого мужчины в среднем состоит из 86 миллиардов нейронов и 85 миллиардов других клеток и что кора мозга, хотя и составляет 82 % его массы, содержит лишь 19 % его нейронов. Большинство нейронов, 72 %, находятся в мозжечке, который составляет 10 % массы мозга.
5
Понятие относительной связности противопоставляется понятию абсолют ной. Сохранение первой предполагает, что каждый новый нейрон оказывается напрямую связан со всеми остальными, при этом общее число аксонов растет экспоненциально с увеличением количества нейронов. А при сохранении абсолютной связности число аксонов на один нейрон остается неизменным, то есть общее количество аксонов растет линейно. Более подробно об эволюционных принципах увеличения размера мозга рассказывается на странице 101. – Прим. ред.
6
Отдельные нейроны в шести слоях неокортекса организованы еще и вертикально – выстроены в столбики (так называемые микроколонки, миниколонки, или уже упоминавшиеся кортикальные модули), расположенные перпендикулярно поверхности мозга.
7
Отсылка к фразе “Роза есть роза есть роза есть роза” из одного произведения американской писательницы Гертруды Стайн. – Прим. ред.
8
Сосудистая структура в основании головного мозга.
9
Хьюлингс Джексон был одним из основателей этого журнала.
10
Гальтон, первооткрыватель во многих областях, также создал систему классификации отпечатков пальцев и вычислил вероятность того, что у двух людей отпечатки совпадут.
11
Позднее ученые пришли к выводу, что у таких детей развивались компенсаторные нервные пути.
12
Информация, поступающая от проприоцепторов – специальных рецепторов, которые воспринимают раздражения в тканях тела, связанные с его движением и мышечной активностью. – Прим. ред.
13
Левое полушарие преимущественно контролирует лицевые мышцы с правой стороны, а правое полушарие – с левой.
14
Крупнейшая база данных, содержащая библиографические сведения об опубликованной медико-биологической литературе. – Прим. ред.
15
Спасибо Уильяму Шекспиру.
16
Прайминг еще называют эффектом предшествования, или фиксированием установки: действие данного стимула влияет на реакцию, возникающую в ответ на последующие подобные стимулы. – Прим. ред.
17
Исключение составляет сенсорная система. См.: Bassett D. S. et al. (2008) Hierarchical organization of human cortical networks in health and schizophrenia. Journal of Neuroscience. 28 (37): 9239-9248.
18
MacKay D. M. (1984) Evaluation: the missing link between cognition and action. In: Prinz W, Sanders A. F. (eds.) Cognition and motor processes (P. 175-184). NY: Springer. – Прим. ред.
19
Повествование, сюжетная линия, жизненная история. Изложение взаимосвязанных событий, представленных в виде последовательности слов или образов, неразрывно связанных с их интерпретацией. – Прим. ред.
20
Познакомиться с этой и другими иллюзиями можно на сайте: http://michaelbach.de/ot/index.html.
21
Позаимствовано у Флипа Уилсона, назвавшего свой знаменитый альбом “Дьявол заставил меня купить это платье!”.
22
Карты мозга – это нейронные репрезентации мира. Одна из них для времени.
23
Эйнштейн А. Мир, каким я его вижу / пер. с англ. Бродоцкой А. М.: АСТ, 2013. – Прим. ред.
24
Аттрактор – это множество (совокупность точек, траекторий или областей), к которому стремится динамическая система с течением времени. Притягивающее множество с фрактальной структурой называют странным аттрактором.
25
Развернутые рассуждения на эту тему приводятся дальше, обзор же содержится в моей книге “Человек”.
26
Выготский изучал, как на развитие и обучение детей влияют их социальные взаимодействия с родителями и другими людьми, благодаря которым ребенок усваивает культуру мышления, манеру говорить, письменную речь и символику.
27
Реакция части моторной системы, которая управляет непроизвольными сокращениями гладких мышц, сердечной мышцы и функцией желез (выделяющих гормоны).
28
Группа, к которой индивид относит самого себя, по отношению к которой испытывает чувство идентичности и принадлежности, в отличие от аут-группы. – Прим. ред.
29
Отражающий принадлежность к группам, участие в совместных действиях. – Прим. ред.
30
Перевод обоих отрывков с англ. А. Якименко. – Прим. ред.
31
Формы одного и того же гена, которые имеют разные последовательности ДНК, расположены в одинаковых участках парных хромосом и определяют альтернативные варианты развития одного и того же признака.
32
Речь идет о полиморфизме, при котором в определенном месте последовательности гена азотистое основание C (цитозин) заменяется на G (гуанин) в составе одного нуклеотида. Гомозиготные особи (с идентичными аллелями этого гена) могут нести G-аллели или C-аллели, в зависимости от соответствующего азотистого основания. Гетерозиготные особи (с разными аллелями гена) имеют G/С-аллели: в одной из них в рассматриваемой позиции находится гуанин, в другой – цитозин. – Прим. ред.
33
В оригинальном тексте – Supreme Court of Judicature. Так до 1981 года называлась целая система судов высшей инстанции. До реформы 2005 года в Великобритании верховного суда как такового вообще не существовало, его функции выполняли другие органы власти. – Прим. ред.
34
Субъективная (психическая, внутренняя) составляющая преступления. На русский язык этот латинский термин чаще всего переводится как “преступное намерение”, на английский же – guilty mind (виновный разум). – Прим. ред.
35
Федеральные правила о доказательствах США, 702.
36
Конечный мозг – передний отдел головного мозга, состоящий из коры больших полушарий и нескольких подкорковых структур, в том числе обонятельной луковицы, базальных ядер и полосатого тела.
37
Harrington v. State, 659NW 2nd 509 (Supreme Court Iowa 2003).
38
http://lawandbiosciences.files.wordpress.com/2008/12/beosruling2.pdf
39
Меннонитство – одна из протестантских деноминаций, возникшая в 1530-е годы в ходе реформационного движения в Нидерландах. Меннониты не приемлют применения насилия, отрицают любые войны и отказываются брать в руки оружие. – Прим. ред.
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