Примечания
1
На англ. HMMWV, или Humvee, – состоящий на вооружении ВС США многоцелевой внедорожник, на базе которого собираются гражданские внедорожники “Хаммер”. – Прим. ред.
2
Condliffe J. Glaxo and Verily Join Forces to Treat Disease by Hacking Your Nervous System. MIT Technology Review, 1 August 2016.
3
Магическое мышление – идея о том, что на действительность можно влиять посредством символических психических или физических действий или мыслей. – Здесь и далее, если не указано иное, – прим. перев.
4
Трансгуманизм – философская концепция, предлагающая использовать достижения науки (в том числе биоинформатики и нанотехнологии) для улучшения умственных и физических возможностей человека и избавления от болезней и страданий.
5
“Сделай сам” (англ. Do It Yourself). – Прим. ред.
6
Hutchinson A. For the Golden State Warriors, Brain Zapping Could Provide an Edge. The New Yorker, 15 June 2016.
7
Reardon S. “Brain doping” may improve athletes’ performance. Nature 531 (2016), pp. 283–4.
8
Нарицательный термин, использующийся по отношению к любому маркетинговому трюку, откровенно вводящему потребителя в заблуждение. – Прим. ред.
9
Программное обеспечение. – Прим. ред.
10
Blackiston D. J., Levin M. Ectopic eyes outside the head in Xenopus tadpoles provide sensory data for light-mediated learning. Journal of Experimental Biology 216 (2013), pp. 1031–40; Durant F. et al. Long-Term, Stochastic Editing of Regenerative Anatomy via Targeting Endogenous Bioelectric Gradients. Biophysical Journal 112, no. 10 (2017), pp. 2231–43.
11
Перевод В. Микушевича.
12
Pancaldi G. Volta: Science and Culture in the Age of Enlightenment. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005, p. 111.
13
Galvani L. Commentary on the Effects of Electricity on Muscular Motion. Norwalk, CN: Burndy Library, 1953, p. 79.
14
Pancaldi, Volta, p. 54; Morus I. R. Frankenstein’s Children: Electricity, Exhibition, and Experiment in Early-Nineteenth-Century London. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998, p. 232.
15
Needham D. Machina Carnis: The Biochemistry of Muscular Contraction in its Historical Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971, pp. 1–26.
16
Needham, Machina Carnis, p. 7.
17
Kinneir D. A New Essay on the Nerves, and the Doctrine of the Animal Spirits Rationally Considered. London, 1738, pp. 21, 66–7.
18
O’Reilly M. F., Walsh J. J. Makers of Electricity. New York: Fordham University Press, 1909, p. 81.
19
Cohen I. B. Benjamin Franklin’s Science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990, p. 42.
20
Finger S., Piccolino M. The Shocking History of Electric Fishes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 282–5.
21
Bresadola M., Piccolino M. Shocking Frogs: Galvani, Volta, and the Electric Origins of Neuroscience. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 27.
22
Bergin W. Aloisio (Luigi) Galvani (1737–1798) and Some Other Catholic Electricians. In: Windle B. (ed.) Twelve Catholic Men of Science. London: Catholic Truth Society, 1912, pp. 69–87.
23
Bresadola & Piccolino, Shocking Frogs, p. 27.
24
O’Reilly & Walsh, Makers of Electricity, p. 152; Bergin, Aloisio (Luigi) Galvani, p. 75.
25
Cavazza M. Laura Bassi and Giuseppe Veratti: an electric couple during the Enlightenment. Institut d’Estudis Catalans, vol. 5, no. 1 (2009), pp. 115–24 (pp. 119–21).
26
Messbarger R. M. The Lady Anatomist: The Life and Work of Anna Morandi Manzolini. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010, p. 157.
27
Frize M. Laura Bassi and Science in 18th-Century Europe. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2013. См. также: Messbarger, The Lady Anatomist, pp. 171–3.
28
Foccaccia M., Simili R. Luigi Galvani, Physician, Surgeon, Physicist: From Animal Electricity to Electro-Physiology. In: Whitaker H. et al. (eds) Brain, Mind and Medicine: Essays in Eighteenth-Century Neuroscience. Boston: Springer, 2007, pp. 145–58 (p. 154).
29
Bresadola & Piccolino, Shocking Frogs, p. 76.
30
Там же, p. 89.
31
Там же, p. 122.
32
O’Reilly & Walsh, Makers of Electricity, p. 133.
33
См. среди прочего: Bernardi W. The controversy on animal electricity in eighteenth-century Italy. Galvani, Volta and others. In: Bevilacqua F., Fregonese L. (eds) Nuova Voltiana: Studies on Volta and His Times. Vol. 1. Milan: Hoepli, 2000, pp. 101–12 (p. 102); Bresadola & Piccolino, Shocking Frogs, p. 143.
34
Pancaldi, Volta, pp. 14–5.
35
Там же, p. 20.
36
Там же, p. 31.
37
Там же, p. 91.
38
Там же, p. 111.
39
Там же, p. 111.
40
Bresadola & Piccolino, Shocking Frogs, p. 152.
41
Там же, pp. 143–4.
42
Bernardi, The controversy, pp. 104–5.
43
Материалы о работе французской комиссии: Blondel C. Animal Electricity in Paris: From Initial Support, to Its Discredit and Eventual Rehabilitation. In: Bresadola M., Pancaldi G. (eds) Luigi Galvani International Workshop, 1998, pp. 187–204.
44
Blondel, Animal Electricity, p. 189.
45
Volta A. Memoria seconda sull’elettricita animale (14 May 1792). Цитируется по книге: Pera M. The Ambiguous Frog. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992, p. 106.
46
Если не оговаривается особо, информация о научных работах, упомянутых в этом разделе, взята из книг Bresadola & Piccolino, Shocking Frogs; Pera, The Ambiguous Frog.
47
Ashcroft F. The Spark of Life. London: Penguin, 2013, p. 24.
48
Blondel, Animal Electricity, p. 190.
49
Bernardi, The controversy, p. 107.
50
Роберт Кемпенот дает понятное описание этого эксперимента: Campenot R. Animal Electricity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016, p. 40.
51
Bernardi, The controversy, p. 103.
52
Там же, p. 107.
53
Aldini G. Essai théorique et expérimental sur le galvanisme, avec une série d’expériences. Paris: Fournier Fils, 1804. С работой можно ознакомиться в архивах библиотеки Смитсоновского института.
54
По некоторым источникам, на демонстрации присутствовала королева Шарлотта и ее сын принц Уэльский, а позднее Альдини, скорее всего, посвятил свою книгу младшему из принцев Августу Фредерику. Но на демонстрации, совершенно определенно, присутствовал как минимум один представитель королевской семьи.
55
Tarlow S., Lowman E. B. Harnessing the Power of the Criminal Corpse. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018, pp. 87–114.
56
McDonald H. Galvanising George Foster, 1803, The University of Melbourne, Archives and Special Collections.
57
Morus I. R. Frankenstein’s Children: Electricity, Exhibition, and Experiment in Early-Nineteenth-Century London. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998, p. 128.
58
Sleigh C. Life, Death and Galvanism. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C, vol. 29, no. 2 (1998), pp. 219–48 (p. 223).
59
Осталось несколько описаний этого эксперимента, я в основном использовала информацию из книги Morus I. R. Shocking Bodies: Life, Death & Electricity in Victorian England. Stroud: The History Press, 2011, pp. 34–7. Другие источники – собственные отчеты Альдини и статья из Ньюгетского справочника от 22 января 1803 года (с. 3).
60
Sleigh, Life, Death and Galvanism, p. 224.
61
Parent A. Giovanni Aldini: From Animal Electricity to Human Brain Stimulation. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, vol. 31, no. 4 (2004), pp. 576–84 (p. 578).
62
Blondel, Animal Electricity in Paris, pp. 194–5.
63
Aldini, Essai Théorique, p. vi.
64
Самое подробное описание этого способа лечения, сделанное Альдини, относится к случаю Луиджи Ланзарини.
65
Carpue J. An Introduction to Electricity and Galvanism; with Cases, Shewing Their Effects in the Cure of Diseases. London: A. Phillips, 1803, p. 86.
66
Blondel, Animal Electricity, p. 197.
67
Aldini J. [sic]. General Views on the Application of Galvanism to Medical Purposes, Principally in Cases of Suspended Animation. London: Royal Society, 1819, p. 37. При публикациях трудов за границей Альдини обычно изменял имя: в Англии он называл себя Джоном, а во Франции становился Жаном.
68
Мифическое существо из иудаистической мифологии, один из самых древних известных примеров вымышленного магического или алхимического конструкта из неорганической материи (обычно глины), полностью подчиненного воле своего создателя. Первый известный прообраз концепции робота. Стоит отметить, что к нежити в традиционном понимании это существо никакого отношения не имеет. – Прим. ред.
69
Parent, Giovanni Aldini, p. 581.
70
Вассалли-Эанди в августе 1802 года заявил, что Альдини “был вынужден признать, что не смог вызвать сокращения сердечной мышцы с помощью электромотора Вольты”.
71
Aldini, Essai Théorique, p. 195.
72
Giulio C. Report presented to the Class of the Exact Sciences of the Academy of Turin, 15th August 1802. The Philosophical Magazine, vol. 15, no. 57 (1803), pp. 39–41.
73
Morus I. The Victorians Bequeathed Us Their Idea of an Electric Future. Aeon, 8 August 2016.
74
Aldini, Essai Théorique, p. 143–4.
75
В этом разделе в основном использованы следующие источники информации: Bertucci P. Therapeutic Attractions: Early Applications of Electricity to the Art of Healing. In: Whitaker H. et al. (eds) Brain, Mind, and Medicine: Essays in Eighteenth-Century Neuroscience. Boston: Springer, 2007, pp. 271–83; Pera, The Ambiguous Frog; и некоторые неподражаемые детали из книги Ивана Риса Моруса “Дети Франкенштейна”.
76
Pera, The Ambiguous Frog, pp. 18–25.
77
Там же, p. 22.
78
Ashcroft, The Spark of Life, pp. 290–1.
79
Bertucci, Therapeutic Attractions, p. 281.
80
Расчет сделан 23 мая 2022 года с помощью CPI Inflation Calculator.
81
Bertucci, Therapeutic Attractions, p. 281.
82
Shepherd F. J. Medical Quacks and Quackeries. Popular Science Monthly, vol. 23 (June 1883), p. 152.
83
Morus, Shocking Bodies, p. 35.
84
Ochs S. A History of Nerve Functions: From Animal Spirits to Molecular Mechanisms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 117.
85
Miller W. S. Elisha Perkins and His Metallic Tractors. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, vol. 8, no. 1 (1935), pp. 41–57 (p. 44).
86
Lord Byron. English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. Цитируется по работе: Miller, Elisha Perkins, p. 52.
87
Finger S. et al. Alexander von Humboldt: Galvanism, Animal Electricity, and Self-Experimentation Part 2: The Electric Eel, Animal Electricity, and Later Years. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, vol. 22, no. 4 (2013), pp. 327–52 (p. 343).
88
Finger & Piccolino, The Shocking History of Electric Fishes, p. 11.
89
Finger et al., Alexander von Humboldt, p. 343.
90
Otis L. Müller’s Lab. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 11. См. также: Finger et al., Alexander von Humboldt, p. 345.
91
. “Большой астатический гальванометр Нобили” можно увидеть среди изображений виртуального музея Галилео Галилея (Museo Galileo, Nobili’s large astatic galvanometer).
92
Verkhratsky A., Parpura V. History of Electrophysiology and the Patch Clamp. In: Martina M., Taverna S. (eds) Methods in Molecular Biology. New York: Humana Press, 2014, pp. 1–19 (p. 7). Однако большинство подробностей об экспериментах Нобили и Маттеуччи взято из книги Отис “Лаборатория Мюллера”.
93
Cobb M. The Idea of the Brain: A History. London: Profile Books, 2020, p. 71.
94
Finger et al., Alexander von Humboldt, p. 347; Otis, Müller’s Lab, p. 90.
95
Письмо Эмиля Дюбуа-Реймона коллеге физиологу-экспериментатору Карлу Людвигу от 1849 года приведено на с. 347 книги: Finger et al., Alexander von Humboldt.
96
Finger & Piccolino, The Shocking History of Electric Fishes, p. 369.
97
Bresadola & Piccolino, Shocking Frogs, p. 21.
98
Finkelstein, Gabriel. Emil du Bois-Reymond vs Ludimar Hermann. Comptes rendus biologies, vol. 329, 5–6 (2006), pp. 340–7.
99
Электрическая природа нервного возбуждения была выяснена гораздо раньше. В 1902 году Бернштейн опубликовал первую теорию потенциала покоя, а в середине XX века появились работы Ходжкина и Хаксли, о которых много говорится в следующей главе. Иной вопрос, что только в конце XX века были раскрыты молекулярные механизмы работы ионных каналов (см. далее). – Прим. науч. ред.
100
Bresadola & Piccolino, Shocking Frogs, p. 13.
101
Впервые термин “электром” появился в печати в 2016 году в малоизвестной статье бельгийского биолога Арнольда Де Люфа, которая называлась “Самоорганизующийся «электром» клетки: биофизическая суть нематериального признака Жизни?” (De Loof A. The cell’s self-generated “electrome”: The biophysical essence of the immaterial dimension of Life? Communicative & Integrative Biology, vol. 9, 5 (2016), e1197446). Данное определение не вошло в широкий обиход. Но еще до публикации статьи другие исследователи, работавшие в области биоэлектричества, включая Майкла Левина и Мин Чжао, уже использовали это слово. В частности, Чжао рецензировал несколько работ, используя этот термин, “не давая ему [окончательного] определения и объяснения, поскольку его понимание продолжает эволюционировать”. Цель данной книги заключается в том, чтобы “приколоть термин булавкой”, как бабочку под стеклом.
102
Строго говоря, потенциал действия распространяет сигнал ВНУТРИ нейрона, охватывая все его отростки. Между нейронами, как и между нейронами и мышечными клетками, коммуникация в большинстве случаев остается химической. – Прим. науч. ред.
103
Valenstein E. The War of the Soups and the Sparks. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 121–34.
104
Слово “ион” происходит от древнегреческого слова ἰόν, что означает “идущий”.
105
James F. Davy, Faraday, and Italian Science. Доклад на IX Национальном симпозиуме по истории и основанию химии (Modena, 25–27 October 2001), pp. 149–58.
106
Faraday M. Experimental Researches in Electricity, Vol. 1 [1832]. London: Richard and John Edward Taylor, 1849. См. веб-сайт The Project Gutenberg eBook.
107
Ringer S., Morshead E. A. The Influence on the Afferent Nerves of the Frog’s Leg from the Local Application of the Chlorides, Bromides, and Iodides of Potassium, Ammonium, and Sodium. Journal of Anatomy and Physiology 12 (1877), pp. 58–72.
108
Campenot, Animal Electricity, p. 114.
109
Несколько миллиметров – это все-таки редкость. Обычно нейрофизиологи имели дело с аксонами кальмаров толщиной 0,5–1 миллиметр, что тоже очень много. – Прим. науч. ред.
110
McCormick D. A. Membrane Potential and Action Potential. In: Squire L. et al. (eds) Fundamental Neuroscience. Oxford: Academic Press, 2013, pp. 93–116 (p. 93).
111
Это неверное объяснение. Дальше по тексту можно найти верное: основная причина существования потенциала покоя – разность концентраций калия (внутри клетки его гораздо больше, чем снаружи). В состоянии покоя мембрана возбудимой клетки проницаема для калия. Поэтому ионы калия свободно выходят из нее, перемещаясь туда, где их концентрация ниже. Возникающий калиевый ток и создает разность потенциалов с минусом внутри клетки и плюсом снаружи. – Прим. науч. ред.
112
Hodgkin A., Huxley A. F. A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve. The Journal of Physiology, vol. 117, no. 4 (1952), pp. 500–44.
113
Ramachandran V. S. The Astonishing Francis Crick. Лекция памяти Фрэнсиса Крика, прочитанная в Центре философских основ науки в Нью-Дели, Индия, 17 октября 2004 года.
114
Schuetze S. The Discovery of the Action Potential. Trends in Neurosciences 6 (1983), pp. 164–8. См. также: Lombard J. Once upon a time the cell membranes: 175 years of cell boundary research. Biology Direct, vol. 9, no. 32, pp. 1–35; а также Finger & Piccolino, The Shocking History of Electric Fishes, p. 402.
115
Campenot, Animal Electricity, pp. 210–11.
116
Agnew W. et al. Purification of the Tetrodotoxin-Binding Component Associated with the Voltage-Sensitive Sodium Channel from Electrophorus Electricus Electroplax Membranes. PNAS, vol. 75, no. 6 (1978), pp. 2606–10.
117
Noda M. et al. Expression of Functional Sodium Channels from Cloned CDNA. Nature, vol. 322, no. 6082 (1986), pp. 826–8.
118
Brenowitz S. et al. Ion Channels: History, Diversity, and Impact. Cold Spring Harbor Protocols 7 (2017), pdb.top092288.
119
Родерик Маккиннон был удостоен Нобелевской премии по химии за исследования ионных каналов в 2003 году.
120
McCormick, Membrane Potential and Action Potential, p. 103.
121
Ashcroft, The Spark of Life, p. 69.
122
McCormick D. A. Membrane Potential and Action Potential. In: Byrne J. H., Roberts J. L. (eds) From Molecules to Networks: An Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience. Amsterdam/Boston: Academic Press, 2nd edition, 2009, pp. 133–58 (p. 151).
123
Ashcroft, The Spark of Life, pp. 49, 87–9.
124
Barhanin J. et al. New scorpion toxins with a very high affinity for Na+ channels. Journal de Physiologie, vol. 79, no. 4 (1984), pp. 304–8.
125
Kullmann D. M. The Neuronal Channelopathies. Brain, vol. 125, no. 6 (2002), pp. 1177–95.
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Fozzard H. Cardiac Sodium and Calcium Channels: A History of Excitatory Currents. Cardiovascular Research, vol. 55, no. 1 (2002), pp. 1–8.
127
Sherman H. G. et al. Mechanistic insight into heterogeneity of trans-plasma membrane electron transport in cancer cell types. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Bioenergetics, 1860/8 (2019), pp. 628–39.
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Lund E. Bioelectric Fields and Growth. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1947.
129
Prindle A. et al. Ion channels enable electrical communication in bacterial communities. Nature, vol. 527, no. 7576 (2015), pp. 59–63.
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Brand A. et al. Hyphal Orientation of Candida albicans Is Regulated by a Calcium-Dependent Mechanism. Current Biology, vol. 17, no. 4 (2007), pp. 347–52.
131
Davies P. The Demon in the Machine. London: Allen Lane, 2019, p. 110.
132
Это все же преувеличение. Все современные гипотезы происхождения жизни уделяют большое внимание вопросу о происхождении мембран. См. книги: Никитин М. Происхождение жизни. М.: АНФ, 2016; Лейн Н. Вопрос жизни. М.: Corpus, 2018. – Прим. науч. ред.
133
Anderson P. A., Greenberg R. M. Phylogeny of ion channels: clues to structure and function. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B, vol. 129, no. 1 (2001), pp. 17–28.
134
Liebeskind B. J. et al. Convergence of ion channel genome content in early animal evolution. PNAS, vol. 112, no. 8 (2015), E846–51.
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Besterman E., Creese R. Waller – pioneer of electrocardiography. British Heart Journal, vol. 42, no. 1 (1979), pp. 61–4 (p. 63).
136
Acierno L. Augustus Desire Waller. Clinical Cardiology, vol. 23, no. 4 (2000), pp. 307–9 (p. 308).
137
Harrington K. Heavy browed savants unbend. Royal Society blogs, 14 July 2016.
138
Waller A. D. A Demonstration on Man of Electromotive Changes accompanying the Heart’s Beat. The Journal of Physiology, vol. 8 (1887), pp. 229–34.
139
Campenot, Animal Electricity, p. 269.
140
Burchell H. A Centennial Note on Waller and the First Human Electrocardiogram. The American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 59, no. 9 (1987), pp. 979–83 (p. 979).
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AlGhatrif M., Lindsay J. A Brief Review: History to Understand Fundamentals of Electrocardiography. Journal of Community Hospital Internal Medicine Perspectives, vol. 2, no. 1 (2012), p. 14383.
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Ashcroft, The Spark of Life, p. 146.
143
Campenot, Animal Electricity, pp. 272–4.
144
Aquilina O. A brief history of cardiac pacing. Images in Paediatric Cardiology, vol. 8, no. 2 (2006), pp. 17–81 (Fig. 16).
145
Rowbottom M., Susskind C. Electricity and Medicine: History of Their Interaction. London: Macmillan, 1984, p. 248.
146
Rowbottom & Susskind, Electricity and Medicine, p. 249.
147
Там же.
148
Emery G. Nuclear pacemaker still energized after 34 years. Reuters, 19 December 2007.
149
Norman J. C. et al. Implantable nuclear-powered cardiac pacemakers. New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 283, no. 22 (1970), pp. 1203–6.
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Roy O. Z., Wehnert R. W. Keeping the heart alive with a biological battery. Electronics, vol. 39, no. 6 (1966), pp. 105–7. См. также: Roy O. Z., Wehnert R. W. Improvements in biogalvanic energy sources. Med. & biol. Engng, vol. 12 (1974), pp. 50–6.
151
Greatbatch W. The Making of the Pacemaker: Celebrating a Lifesaving Invention. Amherst: Prometheus Books, 2000, p. 23.
152
Tashiro H. et al. Direct Neural Interface. In: Popovic M. B. (ed.) Biomechatronics. Oxford: Academic Press, 2019, pp. 139–74.
153
Greatbatch, The Making of the Pacemaker, p. 23.
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Hamzelou J. $100 million project to make intelligence-boosting brain implant. New Scientist, 20 October 2016.
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McKelvey C. The Neuroscientist Who’s Building a Better Memory for Humans. Wired, 1 December 2016.
156
Johnson B. The Urgency of Cognitive Improvement. Medium, 14 June 2017.
157
Строго говоря, это не так. В физиологии есть понятие “инотропное действие”, означающее влияние именно на силу сокращения сердечной мышцы (она регулируется через поступление кальция в мышечные клетки). Однако сердечная мышца либо сокращается целиком, либо нет, в этом смысле ее реакция действительно не бывает половинчатой. – Прим. науч. ред.
158
Campenot, Animal Electricity, pp. 110–1.
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