Сноски
1
Ewen Callaway, «‘It will change everything’: DeepMind’s AI makes gigantic leap in solving protein structures,» Nature, November 30, 2020, www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-03348-4.
2
Andrew Senior, Demis Hassabis, John Jumper and Pushmeet Kohli, «AlphaFold: Using AI for scientific discovery,» DeepMind Research Blog, January 15, 2020, deepmind.com/blog/article/AlphaFold-Using-AI-for-scientific-discovery.
3
Ian Sample, «Google’s DeepMind predicts 3D shapes of proteins,» The Guardian, December 2, 2018, www.theguardian.com/science/2018/dec/02/google-deepminds-ai-program-alphafold-predicts-3d-shapes-of-proteins.
4
Форд М. Роботы наступают: Развитие технологий и будущее без работы. — М.: Альпина нон-фикшн, 2019.
5
Lyxor Robotics и AI UCITS ETF, тикер ROAI.
6
Форд М. Архитекторы интеллекта: Вся правда об искусственном интеллекте от его создателей. — СПб.: Питер, 2020.
7
См., например: Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael Osborne, «The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation?» Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford, Working Paper, September 17, 2013, www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/academic/future-of-employment.pdf, p. 38.
8
Matt McFarland, «Elon Musk: ‘With artificial intelligence we are summoning the demon,’» Washington Post, October 24, 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/news/innovations/wp/2014/10/24/elon-musk-with-artificial-intelligence-we-are-summoning-the-demon/.
9
Anand S. Rao and Gerard Verweij, «Sizing the prize: What’s the real value of AI for your business and how can you capitalise?» PwC, October 2018, www.pwc.com/gx/en/issues/analytics/assets/pwc-ai-analysis-sizing-the-prize-report.pdf.
10
«Neuromorphic computing,» Intel Corporation, accessed May 3, 2020, www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/research/neuromorphic-computing.html.
11
Sara Castellanos, «Intel to release neuromorphic-computing system,» Wall Street Journal, March 18, 2020, www.wsj.com/articles/intel-to-release-neuromorphic-computing-system-11584540000.
12
Linda Hardesty, «WikiLeaks publishes the location of Amazon’s data centers,» SDXCentral, October 12, 2018, www.sdxcentral.com/articles/news/wikileaks-publishes-the-location-of-amazons-data-centers/2018/10/.
13
«RightScale 2019 State of the Cloud Report from Flexera,» Flexera, 2019, resources.flexera.com/web/media/documents/rightscale-2019-state-of-the-cloud-report-from-flexera.pdf, p. 2.
14
Pierr Johnson, «With the public clouds of Amazon, Microsoft and Google, big data is the proverbial big deal,» Forbes, June 15, 2017, www.forbes.com/sites/johnsonpierr/2017/06/15/with-the-public-clouds-of-amazon-microsoft-and-google-big-data-is-the-proverbial-big-deal/.
15
Richard Evans and Jim Gao, «DeepMind AI reduces Google data centre cooling bill by 40 %,» DeepMind Research Blog, July 20, 2016, deepmind.com/blog/article/deepmind-ai-reduces-google-data-centre-cooling-bill-40.
16
Urs Hölzle, «Data centers are more energy efficient than ever,» Google Blog, February 27, 2020, www.blog.google/outreach-initiatives/sustainability/data-centers-energy-efficient/.
17
Ron Miller, «AWS revenue growth slips a bit, but remains Amazon’s golden goose,» TechCrunch, July 25, 2019, techcrunch.com/2019/07/25/aws-revenue-growth-slips-a-bit-but-remains-amazons-golden-goose/.
18
John Bonazzo, «Google exits Pentagon ‘JEDI’ project after employee protests,» Observer, October 10, 2018, observer.com/2018/10/google-pentagon-jedi.
19
Annie Palmer, «Judge temporarily blocks Microsoft Pentagon cloud contract after Amazon suit,» CNBC, February 13, 2020, www.cnbc.com/2020/02/13/amazon-gets-restraining-order-to-block-microsoft-work-on-pentagon-jedi.html.
20
Lauren Feiner, «DoD asks judge to let it reconsider decision to give Microsoft $10 billion contract over Amazon,» CNBC, March 13, 2020, www.cnbc.com/2020/03/13/pentagon-asks-judge-to-let-it-reconsider-its-jedi-cloud-contract-award.html.
21
«TensorFlow on AWS,» Amazon Web Services, accessed May 4, 2020, aws.amazon.com/tensorflow/.
22
Kyle Wiggers, «Intel debuts Pohoiki Springs, a powerful neuromorphic research system for AI workloads,» VentureBeat, March 18, 2020, venture beat.com/2020/03/18/intel-debuts-pohoiki-springs-a-powerful-neuromorphic-research-system-for-ai-workloads/.
23
Jeremy Kahn, «Inside big tech’s quest for human-level A. I.,» Fortune, January 20, 2020, fortune.com/longform/ai-artificial-intelligence-big-tech-microsoft-alphabet-openai/.
24
Martin Ford, Interview with Fei-Fei Li, in Architects of Intelligence: The Truth about AI from the People Building It, Packt Publishing, 2018, p. 150.
25
«Deep Learning on AWS,» Amazon Web Services, accessed May 4, 2020, aws.amazon.com/deep-learning/.
26
Kyle Wiggers, «MIT researchers: Amazon’s Rekognition shows gender and ethnic bias,» VentureBeat, January 24, 2019, venturebeat.com/2019/01/24/amazon-rekognition-bias-mit/.
27
«New schemes teach the masses to build AI,» The Economist, October 27, 2018, www.economist.com/business/2018/10/27/new-schemes-teach-the-masses-to-build-ai.
28
Chris Hoffman, «What is 5G, and how fast will it be?» How-to Geek, January 3, 2020, www.howtogeek.com/340002/what-is-5g-and-how-fast-will-it-be/.
29
Tesla, «Tesla Autonomy Day (video),» YouTube, April 22, 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?reload=9&v=Ucp0TTmvqOE.
30
В октябре 2020 года Tesla действительно выпустила начальную версию пакета полного автопилота под названием Full Self-Driving Package. Возможность загрузить его была предоставлена ограниченному числу владельцев автомобилей Tesla, и в последующие месяцы его доступность предполагалось увеличить. Программа поддерживает такие возможности, как автоматическая парковка и ограниченная навигация по городским улицам, но пока очень далека от того, что можно было бы обоснованно назвать полным автопилотом. Tesla обещала апгрейдить пакет и намекнула на его подорожание в дальнейшем, чтобы подтолкнуть владельцев машин купить начальную версию. Национальное управление безопасности дорожного движения обратило внимание на новинку и заявило, что будет «внимательно следить за новой технологией» и постарается «сделать все, чтобы защитить публику от необоснованных угроз безопасности». (См. концевую сноску 2 в главе 3.)
31
Sean Szymkowski, «Tesla’s full self-driving mode under the watchful eye of NHTSA,» Road Show, October 22, 2020, www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/teslas-full-self-driving-mode-nhtsa/.
32
Rob Csongor, «Tesla raises the bar for self-driving carmakers,» NVIDIA Blog, April 23, 2019, blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2019/04/23/tesla-self-driving/.
33
«Джетсоны» (The Jetsons) — мультипликационный научно-фантастический ситком студии Hanna-Barbera, оригинальные серии которого выходили в эфир в 1962–1963 годах, а действие происходит столетием позже в утопичном мире, воплотившем футуристические концепции, популярные в США в тот период. — Прим. пер.
34
Jeffrey Van Camp, «My Jibo is dying and it’s breaking my heart,» Wired, March 9, 2019, www.wired.com/story/jibo-is-dying-eulogy/.
35
Mark Gurman and Brad Stone, «Amazon is said to be working on another big bet: Home robots,» Bloomberg, April 23, 2018, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-23/amazon-is-said-to-be-working-on-another-big-bet-home-robots.
36
Martin Ford, Interview with Rodney Brooks, in Architects of Intelligence: The Truth about AI from the People Building It, Packt Publishing, 2018, p. 432.
37
«Solving Rubik’s Cube with a robot hand,» OpenAI, October 15, 2019, openai.com/blog/solving-rubiks-cube/. (Includes videos).
38
Will Knight, «Why solving a Rubik’s Cube does not signal robot supremacy,» Wired, October 16, 2019, www.wired.com/story/why-solving-rubiks-cube-not-signal-robot-supremacy/.
39
Noam Scheiber, «Inside an Amazon warehouse, robots’ ways rub off on humans,» New York Times, July 3, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/07/03/business/economy/amazon-warehouse-labor-robots.html.
40
Eugene Kim, «Amazon’s $775 million deal for robotics company Kiva is starting to look really smart,» Business Insider, June 15, 2016, www.businessinsider.com/kiva-robots-save-money-for-amazon-2016-6.
41
Will Evans, «Ruthless quotas at Amazon are maiming employees,» The Atlantic, November 25, 2019, www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2019/11/amazon-warehouse-reports-show-worker-injuries/602530/.
42
Jason Del Ray, «How robots are transforming Amazon warehouse jobs — for better and worse,» Recode, December 11, 2019, www.vox.com/recode/2019/12/11/20982652/robots-amazon-warehouse-jobs-automation.
43
Michael Sainato, «‘I’m not a robot’: Amazon workers condemn unsafe, grueling conditions at warehouse,» The Guardian, February 5, 2020, www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/feb/05/amazon-workers-protest-unsafe-grueling-conditions-warehouse.
44
Jeffrey Dastin, «Exclusive: Amazon rolls out machines that pack orders and replace jobs,» Reuters, May 13, 2019, www.reuters.com/article/us-amazon-com-automation-exclusive/exclusive-amazon-rolls-out-machines-that-pack-orders-and-replace-jobs-idUSKCN1SJ0X1.
45
Matt Simon, «Inside the Amazon warehouse where humans and machines become one,» Wired, June 5, 2019, www.wired.com/story/amazon-warehouse-robots/.
46
James Vincent, «Amazon’s latest robot champion uses deep learning to stock shelves,» The Verge, July 5, 2016, www.theverge.com/2016/7/5/12095788/amazon-picking-robot-challenge-2016.
47
Jeffrey Dastin, «Amazon’s Bezos says robotic hands will be ready for commercial use in next 10 years,» Reuters, June 6, 2019, www.reuters.com/article/us-amazon-com-conference/amazons-bezos-says-robotic-hands-will-be-ready-for-commercial-use-in-next-10-years-idUSKCN1T72JB.
48
Tech Insider, «Inside a warehouse where thousands of robots pack groceries (video),» YouTube, May 9, 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?reload=9&v=4DKrcpa8Z_E.
49
James Vincent, «Welcome to the automated warehouse of the future,» The Verge, May 8, 2018, www.theverge.com/2018/5/8/17331250/automated-warehouses-jobs-ocado-andover-amazon.
50
Там же.
51
«ABB and Covariant partner to deploy integrated AI robotic solutions,» ABB Press Release, February 25, 2020, new.abb.com/news/detail/57457/abb-and-covariant-partner-to-deploy-integrated-ai-robotic-solutions.
52
Evan Ackerman, «Covariant uses simple robot and gigantic neural net to automate warehouse picking,» IEEE Spectrum, January 29, 2020, spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/industrial-robots/covariant-ai-gigantic-neural-network-to-automate-warehouse-picking.
53
Jonathan Vanian, «Industrial robotics giant teams up with a rising A. I. startup,» Fortune, February 25, 2020, fortune.com/2020/02/25/industrial-robotics-ai-covariant/.
54
Alexander Lavin, J. Swaroop Guntupalli, Miguel Lázaro-Gredilla, et al., «Explaining visual cortex phenomena using recursive cortical network,» Vicarious Research Paper, July 30, 2018, www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2018/07/30/380048.full.pdf.
55
Tom Simonite, «These industrial robots get more adept with every task,» Wired, March 10, 2020, www.wired.com/story/these-industrial-robots-adept-every-task.
56
Adam Satariano and Cade Metz, «A warehouse robot learns to sort out the tricky stuff,» New York Times, January 29, 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/technology/warehouse-robot.html.
57
Matthew Boyle, «Robots in aisle two: Supermarket survival means matching Amazon,» Bloomberg, December 3, 2019, www.bloomberg.com/features/2019-automated-grocery-stores/.
58
Там же.
59
Nathaniel Meyersohn, «Grocery stores turn to robots during the coronavirus,» CNN Business, April 7, 2020, www.cnn.com/2020/04/07/business/grocery-stores-robots-automation/index.html.
60
Shoshy Ciment, «Walmart is bringing robots to 650 more stores as the retailer ramps up automation in stores nationwide,» Business Insider, January 13, 2020, www.businessinsider.com/walmart-adding-robots-help-stock-shelves-to-650-more-stores-2020-1.
61
Jennifer Smith, «Grocery delivery goes small with micro-fulfillment centers,» Wall Street Journal, January 27, 2020, www.wsj.com/articles/grocery-delivery-goes-small-with-micro-fulfillment-centers-11580121002.
62
Nick Wingfield, «Inside Amazon Go, a store of the future,» New York Times, January 21, 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/01/21/technology/inside-amazon-go-a-store-of-the-future.html.
63
Spencer Soper, «Amazon will consider opening up to 3,000 cashierless stores by 2021,» Bloomberg, September 29, 2018, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-09-19/amazon-is-said-to-plan-up-to-3-000-cashierless-stores-by-2021.
64
«Взял и пошел». — Прим. пер.
65
Paul Sawyers, «SoftBank leads $30 million investment in Accel Robotics for AI-enabled cashierless stores,» VentureBeat, December 3, 2019, venturebeat.com/2019/12/03/softbank-leads-30-million-investment-in-accel-robotics-for-ai-enabled-cashierless-stores/.
66
Jurica Dujmovic, «As coronavirus hits hard, Amazon starts licensing cashier-free technology to retailers,» MarketWatch, March 31, 2020, www.marketwatch.com/story/as-coronavirus-hits-hard-amazon-starts-licensing-cashier-free-technology-to-retailers-2020-03-31.
67
Eric Rosenbaum, «Panera is losing nearly 100 % of its workers every year as fast-food turnover crisis worsens,» CNBC, August 29, 2019, www.cnbc.com/2019/08/29/fast-food-restaurants-in-america-are-losing-100percent-of-workers-every-year.html.
68
Там же.
69
Kate Krader, «The world’s first robot-made burger is about to hit the Bay Area,» Bloomberg, June 21, 2018, www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2018-06-21/the-world-s-first-robotic-burger-is-ready-to-hit-the-bay-area.
70
John Elflein, «U. S. health care expenditure as a percentage of GDP 1960–2020,» Statista, June 8, 2020, www.statista.com/statistics/184968/us-health-expenditure-as-percent-of-gdp-since-1960/.
71
«Healthcare expenditure and financing,» OCED.stat, accessed May 15, 2020, stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SHA.
72
William J. Baumol and William G. Bowen, Performing Arts, The Economic Dilemma: A Study of Problems Common to Theater, Opera, Music and Dance, MIT Press, 1966.
73
Michael Maiello, «Diagnosing William Baumol’s cost disease,» Chicago Booth Review, May 18, 2017, review.chicagobooth.edu/economics/2017/article/diagnosing-william-baumol-s-cost-disease.
74
«7 healthcare robots for the smart hospital of the future,» Nanalyze, April 6, 2020, www.nanalyze.com/2020/04/healthcare-robots-smart-hospital/.
75
Daphne Sashin, «Robots join workforce at the new Stanford Hospital,» Stanford Medicine News, November 4, 2019, med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2019/11/robots-join-the-workforce-at-the-new-stanford-hospital-.html.
76
Diego Ardila, Atilla P. Kiraly, Sujeeth Bharadwaj et al., «End-to-end lung cancer screening with three-dimensional deep learning on low-dose chest computed tomography,» Nature Medicine, volume 25, pp. 954–961 (2019), May 20, 2019, www.nature.com/articles/s41591-019-0447-x.
77
Karen Hao, «Doctors are using AI to triage COVID-19 patients. The tools may be here to stay,» MIT Technology Review, April 23, 2020, www.technologyreview.com/2020/04/23/1000410/ai-triage-covid-19-patients-health-care.
78
Creative Distribution Lab, «Geoffrey Hinton: On radiology (video),» YouTube, November 24, 2016, http://www.youtube.com/watch?reload=9&v=2HMPRXstSvQ. (Фрагмент конференции 2016 года «Машинное обучение и рынок интеллекта».)
79
Alex Bratt, «Why radiologists have nothing to fear from deep learning,» Journal of the American College of Radiology, volume 16, issue 9, Part A, pp. 1190–1192 (September 2019), April 18, 2019, www.jacr.org/article/S1546-1440(19)30198-X/fulltext.
80
Ray Sipherd, «The third-leading cause of death in US most doctors don’t want you to know about,» CNBC, February 22, 2018, www.cnbc.com/2018/02/22/medical-errors-third-leading-cause-of-death-in-america.html.
81
Elise Reuter, «Study shows reduction in medication errors using health IT startup’s software,» MedCity News, December 24, 2019, medcitynews.com/2019/12/study-shows-reduction-in-medication-errors-using-health-it-startups-software/.
82
Adam Vaughan, «Google is taking over DeepMind’s NHS contracts — should we be worried?» New Scientist, September 27, 2019, www.newscientist.com/article/2217939-google-is-taking-over-deepminds-nhs-contracts-should-we-be-worried/.
83
Clive Thompson, «May A. I. help you?» New York Times, November 14, 2018, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/11/14/magazine/tech-design-ai-chatbot.html.
84
Blair Hanley Frank, «Woebot raises $8 million for its AI therapist,» VentureBeat, March 1, 2018, venturebeat.com/2018/03/01/woebot-raises-8-million-for-its-ai-therapist/.
85
Суперкомпьютер IBM с системой на основе искусственного интеллекта, ориентированной на понимание вопросов на естественном языке. Назван в честь первого президента IBM Томаса Уотсона. — Прим. пер.
86
В России эта телеигра получила название «Своя игра». — Прим. ред.
87
Ariana Eunjung Cha, «Watson’s next feat? Taking on cancer,» Washington Post, June 27, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/sf/national/2015/06/27/watsons-next-feat-taking-on-cancer/.
88
Mary Chris Jaklevic, «MD Anderson Cancer Center’s IBM Watson project fails, and so did the journalism related to it,» Health News Review, February 23, 2017, www.healthnewsreview.org/2017/02/md-anderson-cancer-centers-ibm-watson-project-fails-journalism-related/.
89
Соревнования роботизированных автомобилей, проводящиеся с целью создания беспилотных транспортных средств. — Прим. пер.
90
Mark Anderson, «Surprise! 2020 is not the year for self-driving cars,» IEEE Spectrum, April 22, 2020, spectrum.ieee.org/transportation/self-driving/surprise-2020-is-not-the-year-for-selfdriving-cars.
91
Alex Knapp, «Aurora CEO Chris Urmson says there’ll be hundreds of self-driving cars on the road in five years,» Forbes, October 29, 2019, www.forbes.com/sites/alexknapp/2019/10/29/aurora-ceo-chris-urmson-says-therell-be-hundreds-of-self-driving-cars-on-the-road-in-five-years/.
92
Lex Fridman, «Chris Urmson: Self-driving cars at Aurora, Google, CMU, and DARPA,» Artificial Intelligence Podcast, episode 28, July 22, 2019, lexfridman.com/chris-urmson/. (Есть видео и аудиоподкаст.)
93
Stefan Seltz-Axmacher, «The end of Starsky Robotics,» Starsky Robotics 10-4 Labs Blog, March 19, 2020, medium.com/starsky-robotics-blog/the-end-of-starsky-robotics-acb8a6a8a5f5.
94
Sam Dean, «Uber fares are cheap, thanks to venture capital. But is that free ride ending?» Los Angeles Times, May 11, 2019, www.latimes.com/business/technology/la-fi-tn-uber-ipo-lyft-fare-increase-20190511-story.html.
95
Darrell Etherington, «Waymo has now driven 10 billion autonomous miles in simulation,» TechCrunch, July 10, 2019, techcrunch.com/2019/07/10/waymo-has-now-driven-10-billion-autonomous-miles-in-simulation/.
96
Waymo website, accessed May 20, 2020, waymo.com/.
97
Ray Kurzweil, «The Law of Accelerating Returns,» Kurzweil Library Blog, March 7, 2001, www.kurzweilai.net/the-law-of-accelerating-returns.
98
Имеется в виду максимальный размер твитов, в который мы должны уместить свою мысль. — Прим. пер.
99
Tyler Cowen, The Great Stagnation: How America Ate All the Low-Hanging Fruit of Modern History, Got Sick, and Will (Eventually) Feel Better, Dutton, 2011.
100
Robert J. Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth: The U. S. Standard of Living Since the Civil War, Princeton University Press, 2016.
101
Nicholas Bloom, Charles I. Jones, John Van Reenen and Michael Webb, «Are ideas getting harder to find?» American Economic Review, volume 110, issue 4, pp. 1104–1144 (April 2020), www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20180338, p. 1138.
102
Там же, с. 1104.
103
Там же, с. 1104.
104
Sam Lemonick, «Exploring chemical space: Can AI take us where no human has gone before?» Chemical and Engineering News, April 6, 2020, cen.acs.org/physical-chemistry/computational-chemistry/Exploring-chemical-space-AI-take/98/i13.
105
Там же.
106
Delft University of Technology, «Researchers design new material using artificial intelligence,» Phys.org, October 14, 2019, phys.org/news/2019-10-material-artificial-intelligence.html.
107
Beatrice Jin, «How AI helps to advance new materials discovery,» Cornell Research, accessed May 22, 2020, research.cornell.edu/research/how-ai-helps-advance-new-materials-discovery.
108
Savanna Hoover, «Artificial intelligence meets materials science,» Texas A&M University Engineering News, December 17, 2018, engineering.tamu.edu/news/2018/12/artificial-intelligence-meets-materials-science.html.
109
Kyle Wiggers, «Kebotix raises $11.5 million to automate lab experiments with AI and robotics,» VentureBeat, April 16, 2020, venturebeat.com/2020/04/16/kebotix-raises-11-5-million-to-automate-lab-experiments-with-ai-and-robotics/.
110
Simon Smith, «230 startups using artificial intelligence in drug discovery,» BenchSci Blog, updated April 8, 2020, blog.benchsci.com/startups-using-artificial-intelligence-in-drug-discovery.
111
Ford, Interview with Daphne Koller, in Architects of Intelligence, p. 388.
112
Ned Pagliarulo, «AI’s impact in drug discovery is coming fast, predicts GSK’s Hal Barron,» BioPharma Dive, November 21, 2019, www.biopharmadive.com/news/gsk-hal-barron-ai-drug-discovery-prediction-daphne-koller/567855/.
113
Anne Trafton, «Artificial intelligence yields new antibiotic,» MIT News, February 20, 2020, news.mit.edu/2020/artificial-intelligence-identifies-new-antibiotic-0220.
114
Richard Staines, «Exscientia claims world first as AI-created drug enters clinic,» Pharmaphorum, January 30, 2020, pharmaphorum.com/news/exscientia-claims-world-first-as-ai-created-drug-enters-clinic/.
115
Matt Reynolds, «DeepMind’s AI is getting closer to its first big realworld application,» Wired, January 15, 2020, www.wired.co.uk/article/deepmind-protein-folding-alphafold.
116
Semantic Scholar website, accessed May 25, 2020, pages.semanticscholar.org/about-us.
117
Там же.
118
Khari Johnson, «Microsoft, White House, and Allen Institute release coronavirus data set for medical and NLP researchers,» VentureBeat, March 16, 2020, venturebeat.com/2020/03/16/microsoft-white-house-and-allen-institute-release-coronavirus-data-set-for-medical-and-nlp-researchers/.
119
«CORD-19: COVID-19 Open Research Dataset,» Semantic Scholar, accessed May 6, 2020, www.semanticscholar.org/cord19.
120
Samuel Butler, «Darwin among the machines, a letter to the editors,» The Press, Christchurch, New Zealand, June 13, 1863.
121
Alan Turing, «Computing machinery and intelligence,» Mind, volume LIX, issue 236, pp. 433–460 (October 1950).
122
J. McCarthy, M. L. Minsky, N. Rochester and C. E. Shannon, «A proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence,» August 31, 1955, raysolomonoff.com/dartmouth/boxa/dart564props.pdf.
123
Brad Darrach, «Meet Shaky, the first electronic person: The fascinating and fearsome reality of a machine with a mind of its own,» LIFE, November 20, 1970, p. 58D.
124
Там же.
125
Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts, «A logical calculus of ideas immanent in nervous activity,» Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, volume 5, issue 4, pp. 115–133 (December 1943).
126
Martin Ford, Interview with Ray Kurzweil, in Architects of Intelligence: The Truth about AI from the People Building It, Packt Publishing, 2018, p. 228.
127
Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert, Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry, MIT Press, 1969.
128
Ford, Interview with Yann LeCun, in Architects of Intelligence, p. 122.
129
David E. Rumelhart, Geoffrey E. Hinton and Ronald J. Williams, «Learning representations by back-propagating errors,» Nature, volume 323, issue 6088, pp. 533–536 (1986), October 9, 1986, www.nature.com/articles/323533a0.
130
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131
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132
Ford, Interview with Geoffrey Hinton, in Architects of Intelligence, p. 77.
133
Электронное письмо Юргена Шмидхубера Мартину Форду, 28 января 2019 года.
134
А. Г. Ивахненко (1913–2007) — советский ученый в области систем управления, заслуженный деятель науки УССР. — Прим. пер.
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136
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139
Ежедневный американский комикс-долгожитель (выходил с 1950 по 2000 год) и одноименный мультсериал (с 1965 года), где персонажи прорисовывались очень примитивно. — Прим. пер.
140
Martin Ford, Interview with Geoffrey Hinton, in Architects of Intelligence: The Truth about AI from the People Building It, Packt Publishing, 2018, pp. 72–73.
141
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151
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155
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157
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159
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161
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163
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164
Ford, Interview with David Ferrucci, in Architects of Intelligence, p. 409.
165
Там же, с. 414.
166
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167
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168
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173
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174
Там же, с. 230.
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Там же, с. 233.
176
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179
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180
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183
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184
Машина, придуманная американским карикатуристом Рубом Голдбергом, — устройство, выполняющее очень простое действие очень сложным образом. — Прим. пер.
185
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186
Ford, Interview with Yann LeCun, in Architects of Intelligence, p. 123.
187
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Все примеры схемы Винограда взяты из: Ernest Davis, «A collection of Winograd schemas,» New York University Department of Computer Science, September 8, 2011, cs.nyu.edu/davise/papers/WSOld.html.
190
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191
Там же.
192
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193
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194
Там же, с. 130.
195
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196
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197
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198
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202
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203
Ford, Architects of Intelligence, p. 528.
204
Эта оценка пессимистична по сравнению с результатами других опросов. Поскольку многие из них проводились на конференциях по ИИ, охват исследователей с разным профессиональным уровнем был намного более широким. Большинство прогнозов появления универсального ИИ с вероятностью 50 % приходится на 2040–2050 годы. Список опросов см. в сноске 63 в главе 5.
205
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206
Наш путешественник во времени вторит бывшему министру финансов и директору Национального экономического совета Лоуренсу Саммерсу, который в ноябре 2016 года предсказал, что к 2050 году от четверти до трети мужчин трудоспособного возраста будут вытеснены из трудовых ресурсов. (См. сноску 1 в главе 6.)
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Alexandre Tanzi, «Gloom grips U. S. small businesses, with 52 % predicting failure,» Bloomberg, May 6, 2020, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-06/majority-of-u-s-small-businesses-expect-to-close-survey-says.
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Bughin et al., «Notes from the AI frontier: Modeling the impact of AI on the world economy,» p. 3.
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Хештег и кампания против сексуального насилия и домогательств, тесно связанная с кампаниями «расширения возможностей через сочувствие» среди темнокожих женщин. — Прим. пер.
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Форд М. Технологии, которые изменят мир. — М.: Манн, Иванов и Фербер, 2014.
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249
Если вы сомневаетесь в возможностях глубоких нейронных сетей в переводе с одного языка на другой, сравните следующие два варианта преамбулы китайского «Плана создания искусственного интеллекта нового поколения». Один из них является машинным переводом Google с китайского языка. Другой — профессиональный перевод, выполненный группой из четырех лингвистов.
Ниже приводится первый абзац из каждого перевода. Догадаетесь ли вы, какой из них выполнен машиной, а какой — людьми?
А. Стремительное развитие искусственного интеллекта совершит колоссальные изменения в человеческом обществе и мире. Для того чтобы воспользоваться огромными стратегическими выигрышами создания искусственного интеллекта, обеспечить преимущество первопроходца в разработке искусственного интеллекта в Китае и ускорить создание инновационной страны и мировой силы в науке и технологиях, был составлен этот план в соответствии с требованиями Центрального комитета партии и Государственного совета.
Б. Стремительное развитие искусственного интеллекта (ИИ) глубоко изменит человеческое общество и жизнь, а вместе с ними и мир. Чтобы воспользоваться огромными стратегическими выигрышами создания ИИ, обеспечить Китаю преимущество первопроходца в разработке ИИ, ускорить создание инновационной страны и мировой силы в науке и технологиях, в соответствии с требованиями Центрального комитета партии и Государственного совета был составлен этот план.
Ответ: вариант Б — перевод, выполненный людьми. (См. сноску 8.)
250
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Martin Ford, Interview with Demis Hassabis, in Architects of Intelligence: The Truth about AI from the People Building It, Packt Publishing, 2018, p. 179.
256
Field Cady and Oren Etzioni, «China may overtake US in AI research,» Allen Institute for AI Blog, March 13, 2019, medium.com/ai2-blog/china-to-overtake-us-in-ai-research-8b6b1fe30595.
257
Jeffrey Ding, «Deciphering China’s AI dream: The context, components, capabilities, and consequences of China’s strategy to lead the world in AI,» Future of Humanity Institute, University of Oxford, March 2018, www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/Deciphering_Chinas_AI-Dream.pdf.
258
Jeffrey Ding, «China’s current capabilities, policies, and industrial ecosystem in AI: Testimony before the U. S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission Hearing on Technology, Trade, and Military-Civil Fusion: China’s Pursuit of Artificial Intelligence, New Materials, and New Energy,» June 7, 2019, www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/June%207%20Hearing_Panel%201_Jeffrey%20Ding_China%27s%2 °Current%2 °Capabilities%2C%20Policies%2C%20and%20Industrial%20Ecosystem%20in%20AI.pdf.
259
Kai-Fu Lee, «What China can teach the U. S. about artificial intelligence,» New York Times, September 22, 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/09/22/opinion/sunday/ai-china-united-states.html.
260
Kathrin Hille and Richard Waters, «Washington unnerved by China’s ‘military-civil fusion,’» Financial Times, November 7, 2018, www.ft.com/content/8dcb534c-dbaf-11e8-9f04-38d397e6661c.
261
Scott Shane and Daisuke Wakabayashi, «‘The Business of War’: Google employees protest work for the Pentagon,» New York Times, April 4, 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/04/04/technology/google-letter-ceo-pentagon-project.html.
262
Tom Simonite, «Behind the rise of China’s facial-recognition giants,» Wired, September 3, 2019, www.wired.com/story/behind-rise-chinas-facial-recognition-giants/.
263
Paul Mozur and Aaron Krolik, «A surveillance net blankets China’s cities, giving police vast powers,» New York Times, December 17, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/12/17/technology/china-surveillance.html.
264
Amy B. Wang, «A suspect tried to blend in with 60,000 concertgoers. China’s facial-recognition cameras caught him,» Washington Post, April 13, 2018, www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2018/04/13/china-crime-facial-recognition-cameras-catch-suspect-at-concert-with-60000-people/.
265
Paul Mozur, «Inside China’s dystopian dreams: A. I., shame and lots of cameras,» New York Times, July 8, 2018, nytimes.com/2018/07/08/business/china-surveillance-technology.html.
266
Paul Moser, «One month, 500,000 face scans: How China is using A. I. to profile a minority,» New York Times, April 14, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/04/14/technology/china-surveillance-artificial-intelligence-racial-profiling.html.
267
Там же.
268
Буквально — «огненный глаз». — Прим. пер.
269
Simina Mistreanu, «Life inside China’s social credit laboratory,» Foreign Policy, April 3, 2018, foreignpolicy.com/2018/04/03/life-inside-chinas-social-credit-laboratory/.
270
Echo Huang, «Garbage-sorting violators in China now risk being punished with a junk credit rating,» Quartz, January 8, 2018, qz.com/1173975/garbage-sorting-violators-in-china-risk-getting-a-junk-credit-rating/.
271
Maya Wang, «China’s chilling ‘social credit’ blacklist,» Human Rights Watch, December 12, 2017, www.hrw.org/news/2017/12/13/chinas-chilling-social-credit-blacklist.
272
Nicole Kobie, «The complicated truth about China’s social credit system,» Wired, June 7, 2019, www.wired.co.uk/article/china-social-credit-system-explained.
273
Steven Feldstein, «The global expansion of AI surveillance,» Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, September 17, 2019, carnegieendowment.org/2019/09/17/global-expansion-of-ai-surveillance-pub-79847.
274
Yuan Yang and Madhumita Murgia, «Facial recognition: How China cornered the surveillance market,» Financial Times, December 6, 2019, www.ft.com/content/6f1a8f48-1813-11ea-9ee4-11f260415385.
275
Russell Brandon, «The case against Huawei, explained,» The Verge, May 22, 2019, www.theverge.com/2019/5/22/18634401/huawei-ban-trump-case-infrastructure-fears-google-microsoft-arm-security.
276
Will Knight, «Trump’s latest salvo against China targets AI firms,» Wired, October 9, 2019, www.wired.com/story/trumps-salvo-against-china-targets-ai-firms/.
277
Kashmir Hill, «The secretive company that might end privacy as we know it,» New York Times, January 18, 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/01/18/technology/clearview-privacy-facial-recognition.html.
278
Там же.
279
Там же.
280
Ryan Mac, Caroline Haskins and Logan McDonald, «Clearview’s facial recognition app has been used by the Justice Department, ICE, Macy’s, Walmart, and the NBA,» BuzzFeed News, February 27, 2020, www.buzzfeednews.com/article/ryanmac/clearview-ai-fbi-ice-global-law-enforcement.
281
Alfred Ng and Steven Musil, «Clearview AI hit with cease-and-desist from Google, Facebook over facial recognition collection,» CNET, February 5, 2020, www.cnet.com/news/clearview-ai-hit-with-cease-and-desist-from-google-over-facial-recognition-collection/.
282
Zack Whittaker, «Apple has blocked Clearview AI’s iPhone app for violating its rules,» TechCrunch, February 28, 2020, techcrunch.com/2020/02/28/apple-ban-clearview-iphone/.
283
Nick Statt, «ACLU sues facial recognition firm Clearview AI, calling it a ‘nightmare scenario’ for privacy,» The Verge, May 28, 2020, www.theverge.com/2020/5/28/21273388/aclu-clearview-ai-lawsuit-facial-recognition-database-illinois-biometric-laws.
284
Paul Bischoff, «Surveillance camera statistics: Which cities have the most CCTV cameras?» Comparitech, August 1, 2019, www.comparitech.com/vpn-privacy/the-worlds-most-surveilled-cities/.
285
«Met Police to deploy facial recognition cameras,» BBC, January 30, 2020, www.bbc.com/news/uk-51237665.
286
Clare Garvie, Alvaro Bedoya and Jonathan Frankle, «The perpetual line-up: Unregulated police face recognition in America,» Georgetown Law Center on Privacy and Technology, October 18, 2016, www.perpetuallineup.org/.
287
«Met Police to deploy facial recognition cameras.»
288
London Real, «Jonathan Haidt — Free range kids: How to give your children more freedom (video),» October 27, 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=GPTei2sroIk.
289
Isabella Garcia, «Can facial recognition overcome its racial bias?» Yes! Magazine, April 16, 2020, www.yesmagazine.org/social-justice/2020/04/16privacy-facial-recognition/.
290
Sasha Ingber, «Facial recognition software wrongly identifies 28 lawmakers as crime suspects,» NPR, July 26, 2018, www.npr.org/2018/07/26/632724239/facial-recognition-software-wrongly-identifies-28-lawmakers-as-crime-suspects.
291
Patrick Grother, Mei Ngan and Kayee Hanaoka, «Face Recognition Vendor Test (FRVT) Part 3: Demographic effects,» National Institute of Standards and Technology, December 2019, nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/ir/2019/NIST.IR.8280.pdf.
292
Garcia, «Can facial recognition overcome its racial bias?»
293
Amy Hawkins, «Beijing’s big brother tech needs African faces,» Foreign Policy, July 24, 2018, foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/24/beijings-big-brother-tech-needs-african-faces/.
294
«Fake voices ‘help cyber-crooks steal cash,’» BBC News, July 8, 2019, www.bbc.com/news/technology-48908736.
295
Martin Giles, «The GANfather: The man who’s given machines the gift of imagination,» MIT Technology Review, February 21, 2018, www.technologyreview.com/2018/02/21/145289/the-ganfather-the-man-whos-given-machines-the-gift-of-imagination/.
296
James Vincent, «Watch Jordan Peele use AI to make Barack Obama deliver a PSA about fake news,» The Verge, April 17, 2018, www.theverge.com/tldr/2018/4/17/17247334/ai-fake-news-video-barack-obama-jordanpeele-buzzfeed.
297
Sensity, «The state of deepfakes 2019: Landscape, threats, and impact,» September 2019, sensity.ai/reports/.
298
Ian Sample, «What are deepfakes — and how can you spot them?» The Guardian, January 13, 2020, www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/jan/13/what-are-deepfakes-and-how-can-you-spot-them.
299
Lex Fridman, «Ian Goodfellow: Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs),» Artificial Intelligence Podcast, episode 19, April 18, 2019, lexfridman.com/ian-goodfellow/. (Есть видео и аудио-подкаст.)
300
J. J. McCorvey, «This image-authentication startup is combating faux social media accounts, doctored photos, deep fakes, and more,» Fast Company, February 19, 2019, www.fastcompany.com/90299000/truepic-most-innovative-companies-2019.
301
Ian Goodfellow, Nicolas Papernot, Sandy Huang, et al., «Attacking machine learning with adversarial examples,» OpenAI Blog, February 24, 2017, openai.com/blog/adversarial-example-research/.
302
Anant Jain, «Breaking neural networks with adversarial attacks,» Towards Data Science, February 9, 2019, towardsdatascience.com/breaking-neural-networks-with-adversarial-attacks-f4290a9a45aa.
303
Там же.
304
Slaughterbots, released November 12, 2017, Space Digital, www.youtube.com/watch?reload=9&v=9CO6M2HsoIA.
305
Stuart Russell, «Building a lethal autonomous weapon is easier than building a self-driving car. A new treaty is necessary,» The Security Times, February 2018, www.the-security-times.com/building-a-lethal-autonomous-weapon-is-easier-than-building-a-self-driving-car-a-new-treaty-is-necessary/.
306
Martin Ford, Interview with Stuart Russell, in Architects of Intelligence: The Truth about AI from the People Building It, Packt Publishing, 2018, p. 59.
307
«Country views on killer robots,» Campaign to Stop Killer Robots, August 21, 2019, www.stopkillerrobots.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/KRC_CountryViews21Aug2019.pdf.
308
«Russia, United States attempt to legitimize killer robots,» Campaign to Stop Killer Robots, August 22, 2019, www.stopkillerrobots.org/2019/08/russia-united-states-attempt-to-legitimize-killer-robots/.
309
Zachary Kallenborn, «Swarms of mass destruction: The case for declaring armed and fully autonomous drone swarms as WMD,» Modern War Institute, May 28, 2020, mwi.usma.edu/swarms-mass-destruction-case-declaring-armed-fully-autonomous-drone-swarms-wmd/.
310
Kris Osborn, «Here come the Army’s new class of 10-ton robots,» National Interest, May 21, 2020, nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/here-come-armys-new-class-10-ton-robots-156351.
311
Rachel England, «The US Air Force is preparing a human versus AI dogfight,» Engadget, June 8, 2020, www.engadget.com/the-air-force-will-pit-an-autonomous-fighter-drone-against-a-pilot-121526011.html.
312
Kris Osborn, «Robot vs. robot war? Now China has semi-autonomous fighting ground robots,» National Interest, June 15, 2020, nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/robot-vs-robot-war-now-china-has-semi-autonomous-fighting-ground-robots-162782.
313
Neil Johnson, Guannan Zhao, Eric Hunsader, et al., «Abrupt rise of new machine ecology beyond human response time,» Nature Scientific Reports, volume 3, article number 2627 (2013), September 11, 2013, www.nature.com/articles/srep02627.
314
Ford, Interview with Stuart Russell, in Architects of Intelligence, p. 59.
315
Jeffrey Dastin, «Amazon scraps secret AI recruiting tool that showed bias against women,» Reuters, October 10, 2018, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-amazon-com-jobs-automation-insight/amazon-scraps-secret-ai-recruiting-tool-that-showed-bias-against-women-idUSKCN1MK08G.
316
Julia Angwin, Jeff Larson, Surya Mattu and Lauren Kirchner, «Machine bias,» Propublica, May 23, 2016, www.propublica.org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing.
317
Там же.
318
Ford, Interview with James Manyika, in Architects of Intelligence, p. 279.
319
Ford, Interview with Fei-Fei Li, in Architects of Intelligence, p. 157.
320
Stephen Hawking, Stuart Russell, Max Tegmark and Frank Wilczek, «Stephen Hawking: ‘Transcendence looks at the implications of artificial intelligence — but are we taking AI seriously enough?’» The Independent, May 1, 2014, www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-transcendence-looks-at-the-implications-of-artificial-intelligence-but-are-we-taking-ai-seriously-enough-9313474.html.
321
Бостром Н. Искусственный интеллект: Этапы. Угрозы. Стратегии. — М.: Манн, Иванов и Фербер, 2016.
322
Nick Bostrom, Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies, Oxford University Press, 2014, p. vii.
323
Matt McFarland, «Elon Musk: ‘With artificial intelligence we are summoning the demon,’» Washington Post, October 24, 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/news/innovations/wp/2014/10/24/elon-musk-with-artificial-intelligence-we-are-summoning-the-demon/.
324
Sam Harris, «Can we build AI without losing control over it? (video),» TED Talk, June 2016, www.ted.com/talks/sam_harris_can_we_build_ai_without_losing_control_over_it?language=en.
325
Irving John Good, «Speculations concerning the first ultraintelligent machine,» Advanced in Computers, volume 6, pp. 31–88 (1965), vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bitstream/handle/10919/89424/TechReport05-3.pdf.
326
Jesselyn Cook, «Hundreds of people share stories about falling down YouTube’s recommendation rabbit hole,» Huffington Post, October 15, 2019, www.huffpost.com/entry/youtube-recommendation-rabbit-hole-mozilla_n_5da5c470e4b08f3654912991.
327
Рассел С. Совместимость: Как контролировать искусственный интеллект. — М.: Альпина нон-фикшн, 2020.
328
Stuart Russell, Human Compatible: Artificial Intelligence and the Problem of Control, Viking, 2019, pp. 173–177.
329
Stuart Russell, «How to stop superhuman A. I. before it stops us,» New York Times, October 8, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/10/08/opinion/artificial-intelligence.html.
330
Ford, Interview with Rodney Brooks, in Architects of Intelligence, pp. 440–441.
331
Rebecca Heilweil, «Big tech companies back away from selling facial recognition to police,» Recode, June 11, 2020, www.vox.com/recode/2020/6/10/21287194/amazon-microsoft-ibm-facial-recognition-moratorium-police.
332
Joseph Zeballos-Roig, «Kamala Harris supports $2,000 monthly stimulus checks to help Americans claw out of pandemic ruin — and she’s long backed plans for Democrats to give people more money,» Business Insider, August 15, 2020, www.businessinsider.com/kamala-harris-biden-monthly-stimulus-checks-economic-policy-support-vice-2020-8.
333
Bob Berwyn, «What does ‘12 years to act on climate change’ (now 11 years) really mean?» Inside Climate News, August 27, 2019, insideclimatenews.org/news/27082019/12-years-climate-change-explained-ipcc-science-solutions.
334
Bill Gates, «COVID-19 is awful. Climate change could be worse,» Gates Notes, August 4, 2020, www.gatesnotes.com/Energy/Climate-and-COVID-19.
335
Bill Gates, «Climate change and the 75 % problem,» Gates Notes, October 17, 2018, www.gatesnotes.com/Energy/My-plan-for-fighting-climate-change.
336
Nicholas Bloom, Charles I. Jones, John Van Reenen and Michael Webb, «Are ideas getting harder to find?» American Economic Review, volume 110, issue 4, pp. 1104–1144 (April 2020), www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20180338, p. 1138.
337
Mark Aguiar, Mark Bils, Kerwin Kofi Charles and Erik Hurst, «Leisure luxuries and the labor supply of young men,» National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 23552, June 2017, www.nber.org/papers/w23552.